Table 1 Prevalence and correlates of depression in Australian women

Alati et al. [28]

Cross sectional survey of patients aged 16–84 years presenting for treatment over a 14 day period to a Gold Coast Hospital Emergency Department.

Using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) to measure state anxiety and depression revealed a linear relationship between alcohol consumption and anxiety and depression.

Alati et al. [16]

Mothers were recruited to the Mater University Study of Pregnancy (MUSP) at the Mater Misericordiae Hospital in Brisbane at their first antenatal visit and followed up at 3–5 days, 6 months, and 5, 14 and 21 years after the birth of their child. Babies numbered 7,223, of which 48% were females.

The Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was used with 3,843 participants, 53% of the original sample. At 21 year follow-up, multivariate analyses showed a strong graded inverse association with birth weight and depression for females, even when all other potential confounding factors were adjusted for (OR 0.82, CI 0.73- 0.92).

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [29]

There were 3.5 million young people aged 12.24 years in Australia (approximately 18% of the total population as of June 2001).

Reports a relationship between weight, body image, and depression among young women.

Brown and Lumley [30]

1,366 women were mailed a questionnaire from maternity hospitals and home birth practitioners in Victoria. 225 women responded, 204 of which participated in a follow-up telephone inteview at 7–9 months postpartum.

Poorer levels of emotional wellbeing were associated with tiredness, urinary incontinence and more minor illnesses than usual.

Butterworth [31]

Analysis of data from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (1997). The representative sample comprised 2,232 women with children who had completed the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, and included 622 lone mothers, and 1,610 partnered mothers (aged over 18 years).

Approx 18% of lone mothers experienced depressive disorders compared with 8% partnered mothers. Depression was measured using the CIDI.

Lone mothers were more likely to have psychiatric disorders (OR= 2.4 - 3.4) and to have experienced physical and sexual violence (OR= 3.1- 4.1) than partnered mothers. The measures of physical and sexual violence were better predictors of psychiatric disorders than either lone parent status or the sociodemographic measures.

Cheok et al. [32]

1,455 cardiac patients (aged 18–84 years) admitted to the cardiology unit in one of four major public hospitals in South Australia between August 2000 and December 2001. Patients were sent follow-up questionnaires at 3, 6 and 12 months. The Mean age of the participants was 62.2 years, and 68% of participants were men.

46.3% of 1,455 participants were classified as depressed on the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CESD) Scale or the Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HAD) Scale, and 19.4% of participants had CESD scores that were suggestive of major depression. 54% of female participants were classified as depressed.

Elevated scores were associated with being younger, female, divorced or separated, not employed, living alone, having a lower level of education, and having poorer health and quality of life.

Gillespie et al. [33]

Two cohorts of women (N = 8,077, aged 18 – 45 years) from the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Twin Register.

Age and depression were negatively correlated (r = −0.20), suggesting that symptoms of depression decrease over time.

Goldney et al. [34]

Random but representative sample of 3,010 South Australian residents aged 15 years and over. Participants were recruited by selecting 10 dwellings beginning with every fourth household from a random starting point in a number of metropolitan and rural districts.

Of the 3,010 male and female respondents, 204 (6.8%) had major depression (8.1% females). 132 (4.4%) had major depression alone (5.3% females); 146 (4.9%) had dysthymia (5.1% females); 62 (2.1%) had dysthymia alone (1.9% females); and 66 (2.2 %) had double depression (2.5% females). Depression was measured using the SF-36, the AQoL and the mood module of the PRIME-MD.

Overall, more females (8.1%) than males (5.4%) had major depression.

Goldney et al. [35]

Random and representative sample of 3,015 South Australians aged 15 years and over when recruited for Goldney et al’s. [35] survey.

There was no significant change in the prevalence of depression from 1998 to 2004. Depression was measured using the mood module of the PRIME-MD and the AoQL.

Goldney et al. [36]

Random and representative sample of 2,501 South Australians (aged 18 years and over) randomly selected from the telephone directory. Suicidal ideation and clinical depression were determined by the general health questionnaire (GHQ-28) and the short-form health survey (SF-12).

Overall, 5.6% of men and 5.3% of women had experienced suicidal ideation. Depression was measured using the GHQ-28.

Depression was strongly associated with suicidal ideation. Traumatic events are a significant factor that contributes to suicidal ideation.

Hawthorne et al. [37]

1998 Health Omnibus Data. 3,010 interviews conducted with people aged over 15 years.

For females, the 12 month prevalence of major depression was 8% and 11% for ‘other’ depression. Depression was measured using the PRIME-MD.

Hegarty et al. [38]

1,257 female patients (aged 16–50 years) attending general practitioners.

18% of women reported sufficient depressive symptoms to be considered ‘probably’ depressed. Depression was measured using the BDI or EPDS.

Depressed women were more likely to have experienced severe combined abuse than women who were not depressed.

Henderson et al. [39]

Household sample of 10,600 persons aged 18 or over were interviewed by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS).

The 12 month prevalence of depression in women was 12%. The prevalence of depressive disorders was lower in persons aged 65 and over. Depression was measured using the CIDI-A.

Of women with a depressive disorder, 57% had at least one other mental health disorder.

Herrman et al. [40]

18,489 primary care patients aged 18 to 75 years, across six countries (Israel, Brazil, Australia, Spain, Russian Federation and USA).

Higher depression scores were consistently associated with poorer health, functional status, quality of life and increased health care use. When age, marital status, and education level were controlled for, having a score equal to or over 16 (the cut-point for depression) was more likely for women than men in all sites except Melbourne.

Jirojwong et al. [41]

A cross-sectional study of 143 women (Mean age 28 years) recruited from two regional hospitals in Queensland.

There was a positive correlation between the number of follow-up home visits and depressive symptoms among women who gave birth at one hospital but not the other hospital.

Khawaja and Duncanson [42].

287 university students in Queensland (M = 26.32 years), 221 (77%) female. Caucasian students numbered 205 (71%), 57 (20%) were Asian students, and 24 (8%) were from other cultures.

Females had a significantly higher mean level of depressive symptoms when compared with males.

Kirk et al. [43]

Community based sample of 2,703 Australian twins over the age of 50 years (female N = 1,873).

Factor analysis was used to consider the relationship between fatigue, anxiety, and depression. Results suggested that fatigue could be considered a separate syndrome that is correlated with depression and anxiety, rather than merely as a symptom of depression or anxiety.

LaMontagne et al. [44]. "Job strain - Attributable depression in a sample of working Australians: Assessing the contribution to health inequalities." BMC Public Health 8.

Telephone survey of working Victorians aged over 18 years (N = 1,101).

Job strain was found to contribute to depression.

Middeldorp et al. [45]

Data collected from the Australian and Netherlands Twin Registers (N = 2,470; female N = 1,402) and (N = 1,256; female N = 686) respectively.

In both countries, depressive disorders were more common among women than men.

Migliorini et al. [46]

443 community dwelling adults (28% female, Mean age 52 years) with a spinal cord injury recruited from a spinal cord injury registry. Results were compared to normative Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) data obtained from a large adult non-clinical United Kingdom (UK) population (N = 1794; male N = 815, Mean age 41.0 years).

The prevalence of depression for the total sample was 37% (including males). Depression was measured using the DASS-42.

Relative to the normative sample, females with spinal cord injuries were slightly more likely than males to experience depression. In comparison to the normative sample, the odds ratio (OR) for any Depression was OR 2.09 (95%CI, 1.67-2.62).

Tye and Mullen [47]

103 women (Mean age 29.6 years) from Victorian prisons in Australia were interviewed.

44% of the sample met the criteria for major depression. Depression was measured using the CIDI and the PDQ-4+.

Female prisoners had significantly higher rates of depression compared with women in the community.