Fig. 2

Comparative analyses of the composition of the bio-corona (nanoconjugates, NC) and the total methanolic extract (TE) of common madder (Rubia tinctorum L.; Rt) roots. a Volcano plot of metabolites with an ID score ≥ 0.5. Fold change (FC) of 2 is marked with a green dotted line and a p-value of 0.1 is marked with a red dotted line. b Visual characteristics of methanolic extract (TE) and the nanoharvested solution, which was briefly centrifuged to pellet the nanoconjugates (NC), which were then used for the acid/methanol-based stripping of the adsorbed metabolites. c The heatmap was constructed from the average normalized intensity values of metabolites shown to be significantly different using the volcano plot method. The color intensity scale is on the left-hand side of the heatmap. Different chemical classes are labeled: fatty acid derivatives (FAD) in yellow, phenylpropanoids (PPP) in purple, peptides (Pep) in blue, anthraquinone danthon in orange, and compounds that belong to other chemical classes in gray