Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI (OR) | p-value | OR | 95% CI (OR) | p-value | OR | 95% CI (OR) | p-value | |
Predisposing factors | |||||||||
Age | |||||||||
15–44 years | ref | – | – | ref | – | – | ref | – | – |
45–54 years | 1.82 | [0.66–5.00] | 0.243 | 1.62 | [0.6–4.35] | 0.338 | 2.00 | [0.77–5.21] | 0.154 |
55–64 years | 3.77 | [1.45–9.77] | 0.007 * | 4.58 | [1.89–11.06] | 0.001 * | 4.18 | [1.63–10.72] | 0.003 * |
≥ 65 years | 3.68 | [1.35–10.02] | 0.011 * | 5.90 | [2.2–15.82] | <0.001 * | 4.78 | [1.75–13.05] | 0.002 * |
Sex | |||||||||
Males | ref | – | – | ref | – | – | ref | – | – |
Females | 0.81 | [0.41–1.6] | 0.546 | 0.89 | [0.43–1.84] | 0.753 | 0.95 | [0.45–2.02] | 0.897 |
Ethnicity | |||||||||
African | ref | – | – | ref | – | – | ref | – | – |
’Coloured’(mixed race) | 1.71 | [0.75–3.92] | 0.204 | 1.91 | [0.75–4.87] | 0.173 | 1.91 | [0.72–5.07] | 0.192 |
White or Indian | 0.65 | [0.28–1.48] | 0.299 | 0.29 | [0.09–0.98] | 0.046 * | 0.30 | [0.09–1.05] | 0.060 |
High risk alcohol use | 1.29 | [0.35–4.76] | 0.698 | 0.98 | [0.27–3.51] | 0.973 | 1.50 | [0.43–5.29] | 0.523 |
Current smoker | 0.50 | [0.19–1.31] | 0.155 | 0.45 | [0.17–1.24] | 0.123 | 0.39 | [0.15–1.04] | 0.060 |
Body mass index (BMI) | |||||||||
Underweight/normal weight: < 25 kg/m2 | ref | – | – | ref | – | – | ref | – | – |
Overweight: 25–29.9 kg/m2 | 0.74 | [0.32–1.68] | 0.467 | 0.40 | [0.17–0.96] | 0.041 * | 0.38 | [0.15–0.93] | 0.034 * |
Obese: ≥ 30 kg/m2 | 1.05 | [0.47–2.35] | 0.907 | 0.75 | [0.33–1.72] | 0.495 | 0.77 | [0.32–1.85] | 0.563 |
Enabling factors | |||||||||
Residence | |||||||||
Rural | ref | – | – | ref | – | – | |||
Urban | 1.44 | [0.74–2.82] | 0.283 | 1.41 | [0.68–2.91] | 0.355 | |||
Has health insurance | 6.98 | [2.69–18.15] | <0.001 * | 6.32 | [2.00–19.91] | 0.002 * | |||
Need factors | |||||||||
Hypertensive | 1.06 | [0.54–2.08] | 0.868 | ||||||
High cholesterol | 0.64 | [0.3–1.38] | 0.253 | ||||||
Cardiovascular disease | 1.33 | [0.6–2.94] | 0.479 | ||||||
Accessed health care in past 5 years | 0.98 | [0.52–1.85] | 0.949 | ||||||
Clinician assessed vision loss | 1.97 | [0.83–4.69] | 0.125 | ||||||
Self–reported vision problems | 0.52 | [0.24–1.15] | 0.106 | ||||||
Diabetic medication use | |||||||||
No medication | ref | – | – | ||||||
Oral glycaemic medication | 0.99 | [0.39–2.48] | 0.977 | ||||||
Insulin | 2.67 | [0.47–15.2] | 0.267 | ||||||
Insulin and oral glycaemic medication | 2.57 | [0.9–7.35] | 0.077 | ||||||
Number of years since diabetes diagnosis | |||||||||
0–5 years | ref | – | – | ||||||
6–10 years | 4.23 | [1.55–11.54] | 0.005 * | ||||||
11–20 years | 2.72 | [0.99–7.43] | 0.052 | ||||||
> 20 years | 2.38 | [0.91–6.2] | 0.076 |