Grandmothers were between 52 and 80 years old; six of them were widowed. Grandmothers had been living in their current living arrangements on average 7 years. Seven were living with their son’s family and were thus the paternal grandmothers of the family’s children, while three were maternal grandmothers living with their daughter and son-in-law. In this part of India, the cultural norm is for the paternal grandmother to stay with family; when older women have several sons, they may stay with their eldest son, their youngest son, or the son who is managing their ancestral property. A woman may stay with her daughter’s family if she is widowed and does not have a son to look after her; it is not uncommon for this maternal grandmother to be the sister of her own son-in-law.
Most households (9/10) belonged to the Hindu religion and the average household had 7 members. The majority of grandmothers (7/10) were in the families with average income levels: 10,000–30,000 INR, or 150–450 USD/month. Among grandmothers, most (9/10) were homemakers and one had work outside the home as an office assistant. Six grandmothers were illiterate and 4 had completed primary education (7th grade). There were no major socio-demographic differences between respondents to the 2 instruments, though grandmothers selected for the freelist instrument were slightly more often grandmothers of private-school adolescents and were also slightly older on average.
Household tasks
Grandmothers reported that exclusively women were responsible for domestic tasks in their current households and in the household where they had been mothers of adolescent children. In the current household, the mother was always responsible for cooking (i.e. the grandmother’s daughter-in-law or daughter). Grandmothers whose grandchildren were in private schools (and generally wealthier) reported that their daughter-in-law and hired female servants or domestic helpers were responsible currently for house cleaning, laundry, and dishwashing, whereas grandmothers of public school children reported that these tasks were done by her daughter-in-law or granddaughter. Meal preparation, such as cleaning vegetables and grains, was done most frequently by the grandmother herself. In their past households when they had been mothers of adolescents, all grandmothers reported that they, as mothers, had been responsible for all of these tasks themselves. These patterns could suggest that household responsibilities may be shifting somewhat from being solely the responsibility of the mother to being the duties of other women, including hired servants. When asked in the free-list to name duties they themselves had done previously that are not done by mothers now, grandmothers reported (3/5) clothes washing, cooking (1/5), and caring for animals (3/5). Grandmothers (4/5) reported that mothers now have more time for leisure activities compared to in the past since household devices have mechanized the preparation of meals, resulting in less time required for cooking.
Food preparation
Most grandmothers reported that food preparation has become less laborious now than in the past due to mechanization, availability of gas stoves instead of having to fetch firewood for cooking, and availability of prepared and packaged foods. The majority (4/5) indicated that pre-packaged mixes such as curry powders and masala pastes are more often used to prepare food in their household now than in the past, and that they more often purchase atta (traditional whole grain) flour now rather than grinding grains for flour at home. Almost all (4/5) grandmothers reported that they cooked traditional dishes and food items that are not cooked by their daughter-in-law or daughter for their grandchildren. One grandmother said, “earlier there was no grinder, we used to grind [grains] ourselves.” All respondents listed “mixer/grinder” as an appliance that is found in households now that was not found when they were mothers of adolescents. Other appliances frequently listed include refrigerator, gas stove, and pressure cooker.
Eating patterns
Grandmothers (4/5) reported that their grandchildren ate more often at roadside eateries than did their children at the same age, with only one grandmother reporting no difference. Roadside eateries are stands that offer fried fast foods, such as samosas, pani puri (fried crisp stuffed with a spicy mixture), fried noodles, egg omelets, and fried cauliflower (“Manchurian”), many of which are traditional in Northern India, but not in this area. The increase in availability and consumption of these new and previously unknown foods is consistent with research showing that adolescents’ consumptions patterns in this region reflect a combination of global, non-local, and traditional foods, access, and preferences [9]. Grandmothers also reported that their grandchildren ate snacks outside the home more often than their children had at the same age, with two grandmothers reporting not having noticed a difference. Snacking outside the home can include buying bakery products and foods sold at convenience stores, such as chips, cookies, and candy. Pocket money increases adolescents’ access to snacking outside the home, and indeed grandmothers observed that pocket money for children is now a phenomenon: In freelists, one grandmother commented, “Earlier, children were not given pocket money, now it is more common practice” and when asked “do you ever give pocket money to your grandchildren to eat outside food,” 3/5 said that they do. When asked in the free-list what foods their grandchildren ate now that their children did not eat when they were adolescents, grandmothers listed ready-to-eat foods like instant noodles (Maggi), packaged Cheetos-like snacks (Kurkure), and bakery products like white bread, cake, and pizza. They also listed idli and dosa, which are traditional Indian foods but are more frequently prepared in this area now than in the past due to the ease of preparation that comes with mechanized kitchen tools. One grandmother said, “Previously, we did not eat rice as it was not grown locally, but now rice is eaten more.” Another said, “we used to eat jowar (millet) and corn flour rotis; now more wheat and rice is eaten”; this observation may be linked to government-subsidized distribution of these food items.
In the structured survey, all but one grandmother reported that their grandchildren more often ate with friends outside the home than did their children. All grandmothers indicated that the practices of eating outside home and of bringing snacks from outside to the home have increased in comparison to their family in the previous generation. However, all respondents also indicated that the frequency of eating family meals at home has remained same.
Physical activity
When asked to list activities that their adolescent grandchildren did now that their children had not done when they were the same age, every grandmother reported watching television, and the majority (7/10) reported using the computer or playing mobile games. These reports suggest an increase in adolescents’ participation in sedentary activities in the current generation.
Roles outside the home
In the current household, all grandmothers reported that their son or son-in-law (the father of the adolescents) worked outside the home. This is similar to their experiences when they were mothers of adolescents, when all but one had a husband who worked outside the home. The majority (3/5) of grandmothers also reported that currently their daughter-in-law or daughter worked outside the home. By contrast, only one grandmother reported that she herself had worked outside the home when she was the mother of an adolescent. When asked in the free-list to name tasks that mothers do now that the grandmother did not do when she was raising her children, grandmothers echoed the questionnaire findings that mothers now do “outside work” and “go outside for a job.” In addition, they listed (4/5) “going to school” and doing social activities such as going to the movies, parlor (beautician) or meeting with friends wearing modern clothes (2/5). These patterns are consistent with increasing participation of women outside the home, both in the formal workforce and in the social sphere.