Skip to content

Advertisement

  • Research note
  • Open Access

Evaluation of microvascular endothelial function in patients with infective endocarditis using laser speckle contrast imaging and skin video-capillaroscopy: research proposal of a case control prospective study

BMC Research Notes201710:342

https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-017-2660-3

©  The Author(s) 2017

  • Received: 18 April 2017
  • Accepted: 21 July 2017
  • Published:

Abstract

Objective

Infective endocarditis is a severe condition with high in-hospital and 5-year mortality. There is increasing incidence of infective endocarditis, which may be related to healthcare and changes in prophylaxis recommendations regarding oral procedures. Few studies have evaluated the microcirculation in patients with infective endocarditis, and so far, none have utilized laser-based technology or evaluated functional capillary density. The aim of the study is to evaluate the changes in the systemic microvascular bed of patients with both acute and subacute endocarditis. This is a cohort study that will include adult patients with confirmed active infective endocarditis according to the modified Duke criteria who were admitted to our center for treatment. A control group of sex- and age-matched healthy volunteers will be included. Functional capillary density, which is defined as the number of spontaneously perfused capillaries per square millimeter of skin, will be assessed by video-microscopy with an epi-illuminated fiber optic microscope. Capillary recruitment will be evaluated using post-occlusive reactive hyperemia. Microvascular flow will be evaluated in the forearm using a laser speckle contrast imaging system for the noninvasive and continuous measurement of cutaneous microvascular perfusion changes. Laser speckle contrast imaging will be used in combination with skin iontophoresis of acetylcholine, an endothelium-dependent vasodilator, or sodium nitroprusside (endothelium independent) to test microvascular reactivity.

Results

The present study will contribute to the investigation of microcirculatory changes in infective endocarditis and possibly lead to an earlier diagnosis of the condition and/or determination of its severity and complications.

Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT02940340.

Keywords

  • Infective endocarditis
  • Microcirculation
  • Microvascular dysfunction
  • Speckle contrast imaging
  • Skin video-capillaroscopy

Introduction

Infective endocarditis (IE) is a disease with a high mortality rate that can potentially lead to severe complications. Its clinical presentation is dynamic and variable; it is dependent on patient age, the presence of comorbidities (especially underlying valvular heart disease), the causative microorganism and the presence of complications. In recent years, there has been a change in its epidemiological profile, especially in developed countries. Although younger patients with rheumatic valve disease were the predominant population affected by IE, in the last two decades, older individuals and healthcare-associated infections (including those related to intracardiac devices, valve prosthesis and hemodialysis) and a staphylococcal etiology have become more frequent [1, 2]. However, in developing countries, patients with rheumatic valve disease account for a third of all IE cases, and the viridans group streptococci is the causative agent in a third of all IE cases [3].

Infective endocarditis is a systemic disease involving the vascular system and is often accompanied by bacteremia or fungaemia. Therefore, it results in a septic state. In addition, acute heart failure or acute-on-chronic heart failure commonly complicates left-sided IE due to valve destruction, which leads to acute valvular regurgitation. Indeed, the most common indication for valve replacement surgery is severe heart dysfunction not amenable to pharmacologic intervention [1–3]. Considering the severity and increasing incidence of IE, it is important to better understand the pathophysiology of the endocarditis syndrome. The use of noninvasive techniques in the early diagnosis of IE and its complications may prove useful. In fact, the evaluation of systemic microvascular reactivity has proven to be very helpful in the investigation of the pathophysiology of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders [4, 5] as well as sepsis [6].

Abnormalities in the microcirculation have been demonstrated through microvascular rarefaction to be present in diseases such as arterial hypertension, diabetes, obesity and metabolic syndrome [5, 7–11]. Moreover, impaired systemic microvascular function, characterized primarily by capillary rarefaction in the skin, has been demonstrated in individuals with increased coronary artery disease risk [12, 13].

The importance of vascular endothelial function in cardiovascular medicine has also been demonstrated using microRNAs (miRs), non-coding RNAs that can regulate gene expression via translational repression and/or post-transcriptional degradation [14]. One of the examples is miR-126, which plays a fundamental role in homeostasis and in the modulation of vascular development. Endothelial function can also be regulated by miRs commonly expressed in endothelial cells. One of the best examples of this is miR-223, a cholesterol homeostasis regulator [14].

Laser speckle contrast imaging, which is used to assess skin microvascular reactivity, allows for innovative and reproducible noninvasive evaluation of tissue flow with high real-time spatial resolution in patients with cardiometabolic diseases [15, 16] and critically ill patients [17, 18]. Moreover, cutaneous microvascular reactivity has been correlated to microvascular function in different vascular beds, both in intensity and regarding the underlying mechanisms [19].

Although IE is the prototype of a septic condition that results in acute heart dysfunction, only one study has addressed microcirculation in infective endocarditis [20], and thus far, none have utilized laser speckle contrast imaging or functional skin video-capillaroscopy. Studies have shown microvascular changes in sepsis, in which abnormalities are found in early phases even before the deterioration of hemodynamic parameters [21]. These studies show the relationship of microcirculatory changes with organ failure and mortality, which are independent of the systemic hemodynamic variables [21]. It is probable that in acute staphylococcal endocarditis, findings similar to those in the studied sepsis models may be encountered [17, 22].

The goal of this study is to assess microvascular density and reactivity in patients with acute and subacute endocarditis by laser speckle contrast imaging and skin video-capillaroscopy.

Main text

Methods

Study design and place

This is a cohort study that will include patients with a confirmed diagnosis of infective endocarditis who were admitted to the National Institute of Cardiology (NIC) at the Ministry of Health in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The NIC is a national reference center for the treatment and research of cardiovascular diseases. Its staff is composed of cardiologists, cardiothoracic surgeons, infectious diseases specialists, specialized nursing staff, physiotherapists and pharmacists as well as technical staff. The investigative resources include echocardiography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and scintigraphy. The NIC has outpatient units, four intensive care units and operating theatres where approximately 1300 cardiac surgeries are performed yearly.

Study participants and recruitment

Patients will be recruited consecutively and prospectively from the endocarditis cohort. The eligibility criteria are as follows: (1) confirmed IE according to the modified Duke criteria [23]; (2) inpatient treatment at the NIC; (3) clinical stability as evaluated by the investigator; and (4) age ≥ 18 years. The exclusion criterion is a confirmed previous diagnosis of diabetes mellitus.

Study variables

The variables to be included are as follows: demographic data (sex, age and ethnicity), previous medical history (comorbidities, previous valvular diseases and cardiac interventions), medications in use, data regarding the episode of IE (date of onset, causative pathogen, affected valve or structure, echocardiographic data, local and systemic embolic and non-embolic complications, antibiotic and surgical treatment) and laboratory data (CRP, ESR and creatinine levels).

Intervention

The evaluation of microvascular endothelial function in patients with infective endocarditis will be performed using laser speckle contrast imaging and skin video-capillaroscopy. These results will be compared to those previously obtained from age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers [13]. The systemic microvascular data obtained from this group of healthy volunteers will be used as reference microcirculatory values of individuals free of systemic diseases. None of the healthy volunteers presented with arterial hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia or any other systemic pathology.

Evaluation of microcirculatory reactivity

The microcirculatory tests will be performed in the morning between 8 a.m. and 12 p.m. in an undisturbed, quiet room with a defined stable temperature (23 ± 1 °C) following a 20-min rest period in the supine position. The room temperature will be monitored and adjusted if necessary using air conditioning. The acclimatization period will last until each patient’s skin temperature stabilizes [24]. We have previously demonstrated that following 15–20 min of acclimatization, the skin temperature stabilizes at approximately 29 °C [8].

Evaluation of skin microvascular flow and reactivity

Microvascular reactivity will be evaluated using a laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) system with a laser wavelength of 785 nm (PeriCam PSI system, Perimed, Järfälla, Sweden), as previously described [25]. LSCI will be used in combination with the iontophoresis of acetylcholine (ACh) or sodium nitroprusside (SNP) for the non-invasive, continuous measurement of cutaneous microvascular perfusion changes in arbitrary perfusion units (APUs). The images will be analyzed using the manufacturer’s software (PIMSoft, Perimed, Järfälla, Sweden). One skin site on the ventral surface of the forearm will be randomly chosen for the recordings. Hair, broken skin, areas of skin pigmentation and visible veins will be avoided, and a single drug-delivery electrode will be installed using adhesive discs (LI 611, Perimed, Järfälla, Sweden). A vacuum cushion (AB Germa, Kristianstad, Sweden) will be used to reduce the recording artifacts generated by arm movements. The iontophoresis of ACh 2% w/v or SNP 2% w/v (Sigma Chemical CO, USA) will be performed using a micropharmacology system (PF 751 PeriIont USB Power Supply, Perimed, Sweden) with increasing anodal currents of 30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 μA for 10-s intervals that are spaced 1 min apart, and the total charges will be 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, 1.5 and 1.8 mC. The dispersive electrode will be attached approximately 15 cm away from the iontophoresis chamber. The results of the pharmacological tests will be expressed both as peak values (representing the maximal vasodilation observed following the highest dose of ACh or SNP) and as the area under the curve of vasodilation. The measurements of skin blood flow will be divided by mean arterial pressure values to provide the cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) in APUs/mmHg.

Microvascular reactivity will also be evaluated using a physiological test known as post-occlusive reactive hyperemia (PORH). During the PORH test, arterial occlusion will be achieved with supra-systolic pressure (50 mmHg above the systolic arterial pressure) using a sphygmomanometer for 3 min. Following the release of pressure, maximum flux will be measured.

Capillaroscopy by intra-vital video-microscopy

Capillary density, i.e., the number of perfused capillaries per mm2 of skin area, will be assessed by high-resolution intra-vital color microscopy (Moritex, Cambridge, UK), as previously described [8]. Capillaroscopy will be performed using a video microscopy system with an epi-illuminated fiber optic microscope containing a 100-W mercury vapor lamp light source and an M200 objective with a final magnification of 200×. The dorsum of the non-dominant middle phalanx will be used for image acquisition, which will occur while the patient is seated comfortably in a constant temperature environment (23 ± 1 °C). Images will be acquired and saved for subsequent offline analysis using a semi-automatic integrated system (Microvision Instruments, Evry, France). Mean capillary density will be calculated as the arithmetic mean of the number of visible (i.e., spontaneously perfused) capillaries in three contiguous microscopic fields of 1 mm2 each. A blood pressure cuff will then be applied to the patient’s arm and inflated to supra-systolic pressure (50 mmHg above the measured systolic arterial pressure) to interrupt blood flow completely for three minutes. After cuff release, images will again be acquired and recorded for 60–90 s, during which a maximal hyperemic response is expected to occur [26–28]. All images will be analyzed by two independent observers who will have no knowledge of the subject’s group assignment (control subjects or patients).

Sample size calculations

The prospective power analysis was based on data from previous studies from our group using intravital video-microscopy. This analysis indicated that a sample size of 16 subjects per group would have 80% power at the 5% significance level to detect a difference of 7-capillaries/mm2 (the standard deviation) during PORH between groups. The calculations were made using classical power calculations with the formula.
$$ n = f(\alpha ,\beta ) \cdot \frac{{2s^{2} }}{{\delta^{2} }} $$
where α is the significance level, β is the power of the test, f (α, β) is a value calculated from α and β (in this case 7.9), δ is the difference in means that we should be able to detect, and s is the standard deviation determined in previous studies.

Statistical analysis

The results will be presented as the mean ± SD. For values that do not follow a Gaussian distribution, the medians (25th–75th percentiles) will be presented (Shapiro–Wilk normality test). The results will be analyzed using either two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-tests or repeated measures ANOVAs when appropriate. The independent (unpaired) t test will be used because we will compare two unrelated groups, in which the participants (healthy individuals or patients with IE) in each group are different. P values <0.05 will be considered statistically significant. The statistical package to be used for the statistical analyses is Prism version 6.0 (GraphPad Software Inc. La Jolla, CA, USA).

Clinical and laboratory data will be shown descriptively. The correlations between the intervention study results (capillary density and microvascular reactivity) and features of the disease, such as the number of days of presentation, presence of embolic complications and etiological agent, will be determined using Pearson’s test if the data are found to be of normal distribution (parametric). If the distribution is not normal (non-parametric), Spearman’s test will be used for the analysis.

Discussion

Infective endocarditis remains a disease with high mortality (approximately 15–20% among patients who undergo surgery) and morbidity despite improvements in diagnosis and timely surgical intervention [1, 2]. It is associated with persistent bacteremia or fungaemia and consequent sepsis. Studies evaluating the microcirculation in patients with endocarditis are scarce in the literature. Only one French study, in which nailfold capillary microscopy was used to study twenty-six patients with IE, showed significant correlations of the number of capillary abnormalities with systemic involvement and immunological disturbances [20]. However, the authors concluded that due to the lack of specificity, nailfold capillary microscopy could not be regarded as a useful tool for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Another important issue to consider is the relatively frequent occurrence of severe valvular regurgitation leading to acute heart failure in left-sided IE, which may further compromise microcirculation and tissue perfusion, possibly modifying the response of the microvascular endothelium to sepsis.

Several studies have demonstrated the central role of microcirculation in the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to tissue cells and, therefore, in determining adequate organ perfusion [29, 30]. In sepsis and septic shock, macro and microcirculatory disturbances both contribute to the development of organ failure. Macro and microcirculatory mismatch in septic patients may lead to inappropriate treatment measures and higher mortality [31]. Microcirculation and its effects are a focus of present and future research that aim to improve diagnostic and treatment strategies. Moreover, it has recently been demonstrated that treatment at an early stage of microvascular dysfunction may be most effective for delaying or reversing the disease processes, thus improving the outcome and survival of patients at risk for pulmonary vascular disease [32]. The authors also suggested that this knowledge may be applied toward microvascular dysfunction observed in the skin [32].

In sepsis, microvascular blood flow is disturbed by endothelial dysfunction, which leads to a reduction in flow or no flow at all to some capillary beds, while other beds have above normal flow, even surpassing tissue metabolic demands. This microvascular perfusion heterogeneity results in tissue hypoxia. Endothelial dysfunction in sepsis also results in an inflammatory response, which together with tissue hypoxia, leads to organ failure and mortality [31, 33]. Intravenous fluids and vasoactive agents are important measures in the treatment of sepsis. Intravenous fluids may improve microvascular perfusion, increasing the proportion of perfused capillaries and decreasing flow heterogeneity. However, systemic circulatory changes may be relatively independent of changes in the microcirculation [33, 34].

Our study proposes to evaluate the baseline cutaneous functional capillary density and capillary recruitment (capillary reserve) in patients with IE using PORH. Capillary rarefaction and heterogeneous capillary flow may be shown [18]. In addition to using a laser speckle contrast imaging system, whether microvascular reactivity is normal may be demonstrated with acetylcholine, an endothelium-dependent vasodilator, and sodium nitroprusside, an endothelium-independent vasodilator drug. The results of these studies may be helpful in providing information on the systemic involvement of microcirculation in infective endocarditis.

Limitations and strengths of the study

  • The restricted number of participants due to limitations regarding the inclusion of critically ill patients with a diagnosis of infective endocarditis.

  • The heterogeneity of patients presenting with IE, which is due to several differences, including underlying diseases, such as chronic valvular disease (present or not) and chronic renal failure (present or not and hemodialysis dependent or not); etiologic agents, which may be more aggressive, such as Staphylococcus aureus, or more indolent, such as viridans group streptococci; the type of structure involved, such as the mitral or aortic valves and the tricuspid valve (associated with devices or not); the type of treatment received by the patient (surgical vs. non-surgical); and the duration of treatment at the time of the study protocol.

  • The main strength of the present study is the assessment of the usefulness of laser-based noninvasive techniques in the evaluation of systemic microcirculation and its role in the early diagnosis of infective endocarditis and, possibly, its complications.

Declarations

Authors’ contributions

CL and ET contributed to the conception and design of the study and to the analysis and interpretation of data; AB contributed to the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; and all 3 authors were involved in drafting the manuscript. CL and ET critically revised the manuscript regarding important intellectual content. All authors have given final approval of the version to be published and are publicly responsible for its contents. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the nurse Marcio Marinho Gonzalez for his excellent technical assistance.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The present study will be conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki 1975, which was revised in 2000, and this study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the National Institute of Cardiology in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil under protocol # CAAE 52871216.0.0000. Written informed consent to participate in the study will be obtained from all participants.

Funding

Dr. Cristiane Lamas receives a personal research Grant (Number 202.782/2015) from FAPERJ, the Rio de Janeiro State Agency for Research. Dr. Eduardo Tibirica receives financial support from CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico), FAPERJ (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro) and the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

Authors’ Affiliations

(1)
National Institute of Cardiology, Ministry of Health, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
(2)
National Institute of Infectious Diseases Evandro Chagas, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
(3)
Unigranrio University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
(4)
Laboratory of Cardiovascular Investigation, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Av. Brasil 4365, Rio de Janeiro, 21045-900, Brazil

References

  1. Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, Fowler VG Jr, Tleyjeh IM, Rybak MJ, et al. Infective endocarditis in adults: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications: a scientific statement for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2015;132(15):1435–86.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. Habib G, Lancellotti P, Antunes MJ, Bongiorni MG, Casalta JP, Del Zotti F, et al. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis: the Task Force for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur Heart J. 2015;36(44):3075–128.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. Brandao TJ, Januario-da-Silva CA, Correia MG, Zappa M, Abrantes JA, Dantas AM, et al. Histopathology of valves in infective endocarditis, diagnostic criteria and treatment considerations. Infection. 2017;45(2):199–207.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. Rizzoni D, Aalkjaer C, De Ciuceis C, Porteri E, Rossini C, Rosei CA, et al. How to assess microvascular structure in humans. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev. 2011;18(4):169–77.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. Struijker-Boudier HA, Rosei AE, Bruneval P, Camici PG, Christ F, Henrion D, et al. Evaluation of the microcirculation in hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J. 2007;28(23):2834–40.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. Vincent JL, Taccone FS. Microvascular monitoring-Do ‘global’ markers help? Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2016;30(4):399–405.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. Francischetti EA, Tibirica E, da Silva EG, Rodrigues E, Celoria BM, de Abreu VG. Skin capillary density and microvascular reactivity in obese subjects with and without metabolic syndrome. Microvasc Res. 2011;81(3):325–30.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. Tibirica E, Rodrigues E, Cobas RA, Gomes MB. Endothelial function in patients with type 1 diabetes evaluated by skin capillary recruitment. Microvasc Res. 2007;73(2):107–12.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  9. Kaiser SE, Sanjuliani AF, Estato V, Gomes MB, Tibirica E. Antihypertensive treatment improves microvascular rarefaction and reactivity in low-risk hypertensive individuals. Microcirculation. 2013;20(8):703–16.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. Karaca U, Schram MT, Houben AJ, Muris DM, Stehouwer CD. Microvascular dysfunction as a link between obesity, insulin resistance and hypertension. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2014;103(3):382–7.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. De Boer MP, Meijer RI, Wijnstok NJ, Jonk AM, Houben AJ, Stehouwer CD, et al. Microvascular dysfunction: a potential mechanism in the pathogenesis of obesity-associated insulin resistance and hypertension. Microcirculation. 2012;19(1):5–18.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. Rg IJ, de Jongh RT, Beijk MA, van Weissenbruch MM, Delemarre-van de Waal HA, Serne EH, et al. Individuals at increased coronary heart disease risk are characterized by an impaired microvascular function in skin. Eur J Clin Invest. 2003;33(7):536–42.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
  13. Souza EG, De Lorenzo A, Huguenin G, Oliveira GM, Tibirica E. Impairment of systemic microvascular endothelial and smooth muscle function in individuals with early-onset coronary artery disease: studies with laser speckle contrast imaging. Coron Artery Dis. 2014;25(1):23–8.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. Santulli G. MicroRNAs and Endothelial (Dys) Function. J Cell Physiol. 2016;231(8):1638–44.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. Millet C, Roustit M, Blaise S, Cracowski JL. Comparison between laser speckle contrast imaging and laser Doppler imaging to assess skin blood flow in humans. Microvasc Res. 2011;82(2):147–51.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. Roustit M, Cracowski JL. Assessment of endothelial and neurovascular function in human skin microcirculation. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2013;34(7):373–84.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. De Backer D, Donadello K, Sakr Y, Ospina-Tascon G, Salgado D, Scolletta S, et al. Microcirculatory alterations in patients with severe sepsis: impact of time of assessment and relationship with outcome. Crit Care Med. 2013;41(3):791–9.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. De Backer D, Ospina-Tascon G, Salgado D, Favory R, Creteur J, Vincent JL. Monitoring the microcirculation in the critically ill patient: current methods and future approaches. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36(11):1813–25.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. Holowatz LA, Thompson-Torgerson CS, Kenney WL. The human cutaneous circulation as a model of generalized microvascular function. J Appl Physiol. 2008;105(1):370–2.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. Piette JC, Mouthon JM, Delon MC, Chapelon C, Ziza JM, Wechsler B, et al. Cutaneous microcirculation in infectious endocarditis. Ann Med Interne (Paris). 1989;140(5):372–5.Google Scholar
  21. Kiss F, Molnar L, Hajdu E, Deak A, Molnar A, Berhes M, et al. Skin microcirculatory changes reflect early the circulatory deterioration in a fulminant sepsis model in the pig. Acta Cirurgica Brasileira. 2015;30(7):470–7.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. Edul VS, Enrico C, Laviolle B, Vazquez AR, Ince C, Dubin A. Quantitative assessment of the microcirculation in healthy volunteers and in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2012;40(5):1443–8.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  23. Li JS, Sexton DJ, Mick N, Nettles R, Fowler VG Jr, Ryan T, et al. Proposed modifications to the Duke criteria for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(4):633–8.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. Shore AC. Capillaroscopy and the measurement of capillary pressure. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2000;50(6):501–13.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  25. Cordovil I, Huguenin G, Rosa G, Bello A, Kohler O, de Moraes R, et al. Evaluation of systemic microvascular endothelial function using laser speckle contrast imaging. Microvasc Res. 2012;83(3):376–9.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. Serne EH, Gans RO, ter Maaten JC, Tangelder GJ, Donker AJ, Stehouwer CD. Impaired skin capillary recruitment in essential hypertension is caused by both functional and structural capillary rarefaction. Hypertension. 2001;38(2):238–42.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. Noon JP, Walker BR, Webb DJ, Shore AC, Holton DW, Edwards HV, et al. Impaired microvascular dilatation and capillary rarefaction in young adults with a predisposition to high blood pressure. J Clin Invest. 1997;99(8):1873–9.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  28. Antonios TF, Rattray FE, Singer DR, Markandu ND, Mortimer PS, MacGregor GA. Maximization of skin capillaries during intravital video-microscopy in essential hypertension: comparison between venous congestion, reactive hyperaemia and core heat load tests. Clin Sci (London). 1999;97(4):523–8.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
  29. Ince C, Mayeux PR, Nguyen T, Gomez H, Kellum JA, Ospina-Tascon GA, et al. The endothelium in sepsis. Shock. 2016;45(3):259–70.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  30. Muller RB, Ostrowski SR, Haase N, Wetterslev J, Perner A, Johansson PI. Markers of endothelial damage and coagulation impairment in patients with severe sepsis resuscitated with hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 vs ringer acetate. J Crit Care. 2016;32:16–20.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. Doerschug KC, Delsing AS, Schmidt GA, Haynes WG. Impairments in microvascular reactivity are related to organ failure in human sepsis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;293(2):H1065–71.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. Gaskill CF, Carrier EJ, Kropski JA, Bloodworth NC, Menon S, Foronjy RF, et al. Disruption of lineage specification in adult pulmonary mesenchymal progenitor cells promotes microvascular dysfunction. J Clin Invest. 2017;127(6):2262–76.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. Ospina-Tascon G, Neves AP, Occhipinti G, Donadello K, Buchele G, Simion D, et al. Effects of fluids on microvascular perfusion in patients with severe sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36(6):949–55.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. Pottecher J, Deruddre S, Teboul JL, Georger JF, Laplace C, Benhamou D, et al. Both passive leg raising and intravascular volume expansion improve sublingual microcirculatory perfusion in severe sepsis and septic shock patients. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36(11):1867–74.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright

© The Author(s) 2017

Advertisement

BMC Research Notes

ISSN: 1756-0500

Contact us