- Research note
- Open access
- Published:
Emerging of antimicrobial resistance in staphylococci isolated from clinical and food samples in Algeria
BMC Research Notes volume 11, Article number: 663 (2018)
Abstract
Objective
The antimicrobial resistance of staphylococci rose worldwide. In total, 96 Staphylococcus isolates from food and clinical samples were collected from two provinces in Algeria. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed and resistance-associated genes were detected.
Results
Fifty-one strains were isolated from food samples and differentiated into 33 Staphylococcus aureus and 18 coagulase-negative staphylococci. Forty-five staphylococci were collected from hospital and community-acquired infection cases. All S. aureus isolated from food were resistant to penicillin and 45.5% were resistant to tetracycline. The resistance rates of 45 clinical Staphylococcus isolates were 86.7%, 48.9%, 37.8% and 20.0% to penicillin, tetracycline, erythromycin and kanamycin, respectively. Nine isolates were confirmed as MRSA from food and clinical isolates. One S. aureus originated from food was confirmed as vancomycin-resistant. Multidrug-resistance was observed among 25.5% and 53.3% of food and clinical staphylococci, respectively. The tetM/K, blaZ, aacA-aphD, ermC and mecA genes were detected in food and clinical isolates. ermA gene was not found. This study provided insight into the status of antimicrobial resistance of staphylococci isolated from food and clinical samples in Algeria. Further investigations and surveillance programmes are mandatory.
Introduction
Staphylococci are the most isolated bacteria in nosocomial infections and foodborne illnesses globally and involved in severe systemic affections [1,2,3,4,5,6].
The mechanism of antimicrobials resistance in staphylococci was due to the acquisition of mobile genetic elements like plasmids and/or transposons [7,8,9,10]. Penicillin-resistance was due to the production of beta-lactamases which is encoded by the blaZ gene located chromosomally or on plasmids [11, 12]. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) where resistance is encoded by mecA gene is an important cause of human nosocomial infections worldwide [13, 14]. In S. aureus and CoNS tetracycline resistance is mediated by ribosomal encoded tetM gene and/or by tetK encoded efflux protein [15,16,17]. Ribosomal target modification, mediated by the presence of ermA, ermB and ermC in S. aureus and CoNS is associated with resistance to macrolides, lincosamides and type B streptogramins [17, 18]. For aminoglycoside resistance aacA-aphD genes are conferring cross-resistance to aminoglycosides such as gentamicin, tobramycin, kanamycin and amikacin [19,20,21].
Food is considered as an important vehicle for the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria [6, 22]. In meat-producing animals such as cattle, poultry and swine, antibiotics are mainly used for the treatment and prevention of several bacterial diseases which may lead to arise of antimicrobial resistance in various bacteria like Campylobacter, Escherichia coli, Salmonella and Staphylococcus [23].
In Algeria, antimicrobial susceptibility of S. aureus was commonly investigated. [24,25,26]. Less attention was given to S. aureus and CoNS in community-acquired infections or those isolated from food samples [27].
The aim of this study was to determine phenotypic antimicrobial resistance and associated genes of staphylococci isolates from clinical and food samples in Algeria.
Main text
Methods
Sample collection and processing
One hundred and twelve food samples, including raw milk (n = 30), minced beef meat (n = 25), chicken meat (n = 18), creamy cake (n = 14), pizza (n = 10), beef meat (n = 10) and sausages (n = 5) were collected from retail markets in cities of Médéa and Ain Defla provinces, Algeria.
Forty-five S. aureus isolates from clinical samples like pus, sperm, urine, vaginal discharge, wounds, catheter tips and secretions were kindly provided from Mohamed Boudiaf hospital, Médéa.
Bacterial isolation and identification
Microbiological analysis of food samples was done according to NF EN ISO 6888-1/A1 standard procedure according to the IOS [28] and for clinical samples was done by the method described previously [29]. The identification of coagulase-positive S. aureus (CoPS) was made by biochemical tests (Rabbit plasma, Oxoid, Dardilly, France). Identity of S. aureus was confirmed by agglutination test (Bio-Rad, Marnes-la-Coquette, France).
Susceptibility test of antimicrobial agents
The antimicrobial susceptibility testing to 12 antimicrobial agents was performed using the disc diffusion test according to CLSI recommendations [30] and the guidelines established by the Antibiogram Committee of the French Microbiology Society [31]. The antibiotic discs (Bio-Rad; Oxoid) were used according to instructions of the manufacturer’s (Table 1). Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 was used as quality control.
Oxacillin and/or cefoxitin were confirmed as MRSA using E-test method (Liofilchem, Loc Piane Vomano, Italy).
Detection of resistance-associated genes by PCR
Genomic DNA was extracted using phenol/chloroform extraction method [32].
PCR amplifications were carried out for aacA-aphD, ermA, ermC, tetK and tetM, blaZ and mecA genes according to methods described previously [16, 33, 34], respectively.
The DNA fragments were visualized using an UV transilluminator (EC3, UVP BioImaging Systems, Cambridge, UK) and read using AlphaEaseFC software (Genetic Technologies Ltd., Fitzroy, Australia).
Statistical analysis
Possible relationships between the presence of resistance genes among S. aureus and CoNS isolated from food and clinical samples were statistically analysed using Fisher’s exact test. P-value of < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant difference.
Results
Ninety-six staphylococci were isolated, identified and classified as 51 staphylococci (33 S. aureus and 18 CoNS) from food samples, 27 staphylococci (21 S. aureus and 6 CoNS) from community-acquired clinical samples and 18 S. aureus from hospital-acquired clinical samples, respectively.
Out of 51 staphylococci isolated from food samples, 49 staphylococci (33 S. aureus and 15 CoNS) were resistant to at least one tested antibiotic (96.1%) (Table 1). The resistance rates to penicillin and tetracycline were 94.1% and 49.0%, respectively. Two S. aureus (6.1%) and three CoNS (16.7%) were phenotypically resistant to methicillin by disc diffusion test while MIC determination by E-test confirmed only one isolate as MRSA and another as methicillin-resistant CoNS.
Vancomycin resistance was detected in one S. aureus (3.0%). The resistance rates of CoNS to clindamycin and erythromycin were 33.3% and 27.8%, respectively. All staphylococci isolated from food samples were susceptible to gentamicin.
The antimicrobial resistance rates were remarkably higher in clinical isolates than in staphylococci isolated from food samples (Table 1). The resistance rates of S. aureus and CoNS isolated from clinical samples to penicillin were 92.3% and 50.0%, respectively while those to tetracycline were 48.7% and 50.0% for S. aureus and CoNS, respectively. The prevalence of MRSA obtained by disc diffusion test was 38.9% and 52.4% for hospital and community-acquired isolates, respectively. However, the detected MRSA rate by E-test was 11.1% and 23.8%. Staphylococcus aureus showed considerable resistance to erythromycin for both hospital-acquired (27.8%) and community-acquired isolates (52.4%). Staphylococcus aureus isolates from hospital were susceptible to gentamicin, however, those isolated from community infection showed 14.3% resistance to gentamicin. All clinical staphylococci isolates were susceptible to vancomycin.
The antibiotic resistance-associated genes were demonstrated in Table 2. In food isolates tetM was the most prevalent gene detected in S. aureus and CoNS with 66.7% and 88.9%, respectively. Both tetM and tetK genes were detected in 11 S. aureus (33.3%) and 4 CoNS (22.2%). In food samples, mecA gene was observed in 15 S. aureus (46.9%) and 10 CoNS (88.9%) isolates, respectively. Six S. aureus (18.2%) and 3 CoNS (16.7%) isolates harboured aacA-aphD gene associated with gentamicin-resistance. Fifteen S. aureus (46.9%) and 10 CoNS (88.9%) isolates possessed blaZ gene encoding resistance to penicillin. No significant difference for the detection of antibiotics resistance genes was observed between S. aureus and CoNS isolated from food samples (P > 0.05).
Regarding staphylococci from clinical samples, mecA was the most detectable resistance-associated gene in S. aureus originated from the hospital with 17 isolates (94.4%) and in the community with 19 isolates (90.5%). The tetM gene was found in 10 hospital isolates (55.6%) and 17 community-acquired isolates (81.0%). The tetK and tekM genes were detected together in 10 S. aureus isolates (25.6%). Six S. aureus from the hospital (16.7%) harboured ermC gene. The aacA-aphD gene was found by PCR in 12 S. aureus isolates (3 from hospital and 9 were community-acquired). The blaZ gene detection rate was significantly higher in hospital-acquired S. aureus with 15 isolates (81.0%) than in community-acquired isolates with only 6 (55.6%) (P = 0.025). No statistical differences were observed for the detection of remaining antibiotic genes.
The correlation between phenotypic resistance and detection of resistance-associated genes for food and clinical isolates was demonstrated in Table 3. In S. aureus from food samples correspondence between phenotypic resistance and associated genes was 45.5% and 50.0% concerning penicillin and methicillin, respectively. For tetracycline resistant isolates 46.7% and 53.3% harboured tetK and tetM, respectively. Both genes were detected in 33.3%. In clinical isolates the correlation between resistance and mecA gene was very high with 100% and 92.8% in hospital-acquired and community-acquired S. aureus.
Discussion
The results of this study showed less prevalence of S. aureus resistant to oxacillin in food isolates (6.1%) compared to those reported previously 67.5% [35], 38.0% [36] and 17.3% [37].
The prevalence of oxacillin-resistance in clinical isolates was slightly similar to previous study in Algiers [38] but lower than another study in eastern Algeria [39].
Staphylococcus aureus from food and clinical samples were phenotypically oxacillin-resistant with 6.1% and 46.2%, respectively. From isolates 46.8% and 92.3% of them harboured the mecA gene, respectively. In contrast, 38.0% of Portuguese S. aureus strains from food samples were resistant to oxacillin but only 0.7% of them harboured mecA gene [36] and in Libya, mecA gene was not detected by PCR in MRSA isolated from hospitalized patients [40].
In Morocco, Kenya, Nigeria and Cameroun relatively high occurrence rates of MRSA were reported [41]. In Algeria, the majority of MRSA did not represent a high multidrug resistance rate [41, 42].
All isolates from food were resistant to penicillin which was in agreement with previous reports [37, 43, 44] but significantly higher than reported in other studies [35, 36, 45].
Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical samples were highly resistant to penicillin (> 90.0%) which is in agreement with previous studies [46,47,48,49].
The presence of the blaZ gene did not influence production of β-lactamase alone [50, 51]. Here, not all penicillin-resistant S. aureus isolates from food (45.5%) and clinical samples (52.8%) possessed blaZ gene.
All S. aureus isolates from food samples were susceptible to gentamicin, which agrees with several reports [36, 52, 53]. In all clinical isolates, the resistance rate of S. aureus to gentamicin was 7.7% which was similar (7.0%) with a study performed in Algeria [25]. In Algeria, no resistance to gentamicin was found in staphylococci in milk [54, 55]. One S. aureus isolate exhibiting phenotypic resistance to gentamicin harboured the aacA-aphD gene which is in contrast to previous studies [16, 33]. In this study, aacA-aphD was detected more often in staphylococci isolates from clinical (31.1%) than those of food origin (17.6%).
Staphylococcus aureus isolates from food were slightly resistant to erythromycin (9.1%) which was higher than 5% reported previously in Portugal [36], but significantly lower than detected in China and Turkey [37, 56].
The resistance of clinical S. aureus to erythromycin was higher than reported previously in Algerian hospitals [25]. The ermA gene encoded erythromycin-resistance could not be detected in both S. aureus and CoNS from clinical and food origin. In contrast, high rate of ermA and ermC genes in MRSA isolates from hospitalized patients was determined [57]. The correlation between phenotypic susceptibility testing and detection of ermC gene was 31.3% which was lower than obtained previously [16, 33]. In Libya, ermA and ermC genes could not be detected in erythromycin-resistant S. aureus [40].
The resistance of S. aureus isolated from food samples to tetracycline was higher than reported formerly in China [56], in Italy [6], in Portugal [36] and in Turkey [45]. Tetracycline resistance of S. aureus isolated from clinical samples was considered lower than reported before [25, 48]. There was no significant difference between tetracycline resistance in staphylococci isolated from food and clinical samples. In contrast, a higher resistance rate to tetracycline in food isolates compared to clinical isolates was described [52]. The tetK and tetM genes were detected in 53.3% and 60.0% in resistant S. aureus from food samples, respectively. In clinical S. aureus isolates, the correlation rate between phenotypic resistance and prevalence of tetM and tetK genes was 72.2% and 66.7%, respectively. The discrepancy between phenotypic resistance to tetracycline and resistance determinants may attributed to other mechanisms [15, 58].
Vancomycin was the most effective antimicrobial agent against MRSA [41, 59]. In this study, three S. aureus strains from food showed resistance to vancomycin. In Turkey, 21.7% of S. aureus isolated from food samples were resistant to vancomycin [37].
Most of CoNS isolates were resistant to penicillin, tetracycline and erythromycin. In addition, 16.7% of CoNS isolated from food samples were confirmed phenotypically as methicillin-resistant CoNS (MR-CoNS). The mecA gene was detected in 75.0% of isolated CoNS which was in agreement with previous study [33]. The ermC gene was detected only in one CoNS isolate (5.6%) which was in accordance with formerly reports [33, 60]. In contrast, staphylococci isolated in Turkey showed high detection rate of ermC and ermA [61, 62].
In conclusion, the high prevalence of resistance to penicillin, tetracycline and erythromycin was particularly alarming. The knowledge about antibiotic resistance of staphylococci originated from daily food from markets and of community-acquired S. aureus is not fully addressed in Algeria, yet. Information concerning resistance in CoNS is very limited in this country. Vancomycin-resistant isolates were found in food isolates not in clinical ones. This study considered a first impression on existing situation concerning antibiotic resistance on staphylococci from food and clinical sources. Surveillance on antibiotic resistance and characterization of staphylococci in Algeria is mandatory.
Limitations
This study used exclusively samples from cities of Médéa and Ain Defla provinces, Algeria which limits the generalisation of the results.
Abbreviations
- CoNS:
-
coagulase negative Staphylococcus
- PCR:
-
polymerase chain reaction
- P:
-
penicillin
- OX:
-
oxacillin
- FOX:
-
cefoxitin
- AMC:
-
amoxicillin + clavulanic acid
- GM:
-
gentamicin
- E:
-
erythromycin
- K:
-
kanamycin
- TE:
-
tetracycline
- VA:
-
vancomycin
- CL:
-
clindamycin
- RIF:
-
rifampicin
- STX:
-
trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole
- S:
-
susceptible
- R:
-
resistant
- I:
-
intermediate
References
Booth M, Pence L, Mahasreshti P, Callegan M, Gilmore M. Clonal associations among Staphylococcus aureus isolates from various sites of infection. Infect Immun. 2001;69:345–52.
Chiang Y, Liao W, Fan C, Pai W, Chiou C, Tsen H. PCR detection of staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) N, O, P, Q, R, U, and survey of SE types in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from food-poisoning cases in Taiwan. Int J Food Microbiol. 2008;121:66–73.
Le Loir Y, Baron F, Gautier M. Staphylococcus aureus and food poisoning. Genet Mol Res. 2003;2:63–76.
Helmy YA, El-Adawy H, Abdelwhab EM. A comprehensive review of common bacterial, parasitic and viral zoonoses at the human-animal interface in Egypt. Pathogens. 2017;6(3):1–28.
Holmes A, Ganner M, McGuane S, Pitt T, Cookson B, Kearns A. Staphylococcus aureus isolates carrying Panton-Valentine leucocidin genes in England and Wales: frequency, characterization, and association with clinical disease. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43:2384–90.
Pesavento G, Ducci B, Comodo N, Nostro A. Antimicrobial resistance profile of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from raw meat: a research for methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Food Control. 2007;18:196–200.
Kennedy A, Otto M, Braughton K, Whitney A, Chen L, Mathema B, et al. Epidemic community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: recent clonal expansion and diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2008;105:1327–32.
El-Adawy H, Ahmed M, Hotzel H, Monecke S, Schulz J, Hartung J, et al. Characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from healthy turkeys and broilers using DNA microarrays. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:2019.
Lozano C, Aspiroz C, Rezusta A, Gomez-Sanz E, Simon C, Gomez P, et al. Identification of novel vga(A)-carrying plasmids and a Tn5406-like transposon in meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis of human and animal origin. Int J Antimicrob Agent. 2012;40:306–12.
Waters A, Contente-Cuomo T, Buchhagen J, Liu C, Watson L, Pearce K, et al. Multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in US meat and poultry. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:1227–30.
Olsen J, Christensen H, Aarestrup F. Diversity and evolution of blaZ from Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;57:450–60.
Berger-Bächi B, Senn M, Ender M, Seidl K, Hübscher J, Schulthess B, et al. Resistance to β-lactam antibiotics. In: Crossley B, Jefferson K, Archer G, Fowler V, editors. Staphylococci in human disease. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009.
David MZ, Daum RS. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: epidemiology and clinical consequences of an emerging epidemic. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23:616–87.
Baron E. Genetic aspects of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and methods used for its detection in clinical laboratories in the United States. J Chemother. 1995;7(Suppl 3):87–92.
Schmitz F, Krey A, Sadurski R, Verhoef J, Milatovic D, Fluit A. Resistance to tetracycline and distribution of tetracycline resistance genes in European Staphylococcus aureus isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001;47:239–40.
Strommenger B, Kettlitz C, Werner G, Witte W. Multiplex PCR assay for simultaneous detection of nine clinically relevant antibiotic resistance genes in Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:4089–94.
Trzcinski K, Cooper B, Hryniewicz W, Dowson C. Expression of resistance to tetracyclines in strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;45:763–70.
Maravic G. Macrolide resistance based on the Erm-mediated rRNA methylation. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord. 2004;4:193–202.
Schmitz F, Fluit A, Gondolf M, Beyrau R, Lindenlauf E, Verhoef J, et al. The prevalence of aminoglycoside resistance and corresponding resistance genes in clinical isolates of staphylococci from 19 European hospitals. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;43:253–9.
Torres Garcia M, Tejedor Junco M, Gonzalez Martin M, Gonzalez Lama Z. Selection of subpopulations resistnat to amikacin and netilmicin of gentamicin-resistant clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Zentralbl Bakteriol. 1996;284:58–66.
Vanhoof R, Godard C, Content J, Nyssen H, Hannecart-Pokorni E. Detection by polymerase chain reaction of genes encoding aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates of epidemic phage types. Belgian study group of hospital infections (GDEPIH/GOSPIZ). J Med Microbiol. 1994;41:282–90.
Khan S, Nawaz M, Khan A, Cerniglia C. Transfer of erythromycin resistance from poultry to human clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:1832–8.
Economou V, Gousia P. Agriculture and food animals as a source of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. Infect Drug Res. 2015;8:49–61.
Ouchenane Z, Smati F, Rolain JM, Raoult D. Molecular characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in Algeria. Pathol Biol. 2011;59:e129–32.
Ramdani-Bouguessa N, Bes M, Meugnier H, Forey F, Reverdy ME, Lina G, et al. Detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains resistant to multiple antibiotics and carrying the Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes in an Algiers hospital. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;50:1083–5.
Rebiahi S, Abdelouahid D, Rahmoun M, Abdelali S, Azzaoui H. Emergence of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus identified in the Tlemcen university hospital (North-West Algeria). Med Mal Infect. 2011;41:646–51.
Hamiroune M, Berber A, Boubekeur S. Contribution to the study of Staphylococcus contamination of cows’ milk on a number of farms in Algiers: its impact on human health. Rev Sci Tech. 2014;33(1035–41):27–34.
ISO. Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs—horizontal method for the enumeration of coagulase-positive staphylococci (Staphylococcus aureus and other species)—Part 1: technique using Baird-Parker agar medium. Geneva: ISO; 1999.
Karmakar A, Dua P, Ghosh C. Biochemical and molecular analysis of Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates from hospitalized patients. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2016;2016:7.
CLSI. Clinical and laboratory standards institute, performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 26th ed. Wayne: CLSI; 2007.
CA-SFM. Comité de l’antibiogramme de la Société Française de Microbiologie; recommandations. France; 2014.
Sambrook J, Russell DW. Molecular cloning a laboratory manual. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 2001. p. 1–V
Martineau F, Picard F, Lansac N, Menard C, Roy P, Ouellette M, et al. Correlation between the resistance genotype determined by multiplex PCR assays and the antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44:231–8.
Mehrotra M, Wang G, Johnson WM. Multiplex PCR for detection of genes for Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, and methicillin resistance. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:1032–5.
Gundogan N, Citak S, Yucel N, Devren A. A note on the incidence and antibiotic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from meat and chicken samples. Meat Sci. 2005;69:807–10.
Pereira V, Lopes C, Castro A, Silva J, Gibbs P, Teixeira P. Characterization for enterotoxin production, virulence factors, and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from various foods in Portugal. Food Microbiol. 2009;26:278–82.
Guven K, Mutlu M, Gulbandilar A, Cakir P. Occurrence and characterization of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from meat and dairy products consumed in Turkey. Food Saf. 2010;30:196–212.
Antri K, Rouzic N, Dauwalder O, Boubekri I, Bes M, Lina G, et al. High prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clone ST80-IV in hospital and community settings in Algiers. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011;17:526–32.
Alioua M, Labid A, Amoura K, Bertine M, Gacemi-Kirane D, Dekhil M. Emergence of the European ST80 clone of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a cause of healthcare-associated infections in Eastern Algeria. Med Mal Infect. 2014;44:180–3.
Zmantar T, Bekir K, Elgarsadi S, Hadad O, Bakhrouf A. Molecular investigation of antibiotic resistance genes in methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from nasal cavity in pediatric service. Afr J Microbiol Res. 2013;7:4414–21.
Kesah C, Ben Redjeb S, Odugbemi T, Boye C, Dosso M, Ndinya Achola J, et al. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in eight African hospitals and Malta. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2003;9:153–6.
Borg M, de Kraker M, Scicluna E, van de Sande-Bruinsma N, Tiemersma E, Monen J, et al. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in invasive isolates from southern and eastern Mediterranean countries. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007;60:1310–5.
Peles F, Wagner M, Varga L, Hein I, Rieck P, Gutser K, et al. Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from bovine milk in Hungary. Int J Food Microbiol. 2007;118:186–93.
Moon J, Lee A, Jaw S, Kang H, Joo Y, Park Y, et al. Comparison of antibiogram, staphylococcal enterotoxin productivity, and coagulase genotypes among Staphylococcus aureus isolated from animal and vegetable sources in Korea. J Food Prot. 2007;70:2541–8.
Aydin A, Muratoglu K, Sudagidan M, Bostan K, Okuklu B, Harsa S. Prevalence and antibiotic resistance of foodborne Staphylococcus aureus isolates in Turkey. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2011;8:63–9.
Goff DA, Dowzicky MJ. Prevalence and regional variation in meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the USA and comparative in vitro activity of tigecycline, a glycylcycline antimicrobial. J Med Microbiol. 2007;56:1189–93.
Denton M, O’Connell B, Bernard P, Jarlier V, Williams Z, Henriksen A. The EPISA study: antimicrobial susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus causing primary or secondary skin and soft tissue infections in the community in France, the UK and Ireland. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;61:586–8.
Sina H, Ahoyo T, Moussaoui W, Keller D, Bankole H, Barogui Y, et al. Variability of antibiotic susceptibility and toxin production of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from skin, soft tissue, and bone related infections. BMC Microbiol. 2013;13:188.
Cohen M. Epidemiology of drug resistance: implications for a post-antimicrobial era. Science. 1992;257:1050–5.
Haveri M, Suominen S, Rantala L, Honkanen-Buzalski T, Pyorala S. Comparison of phenotypic and genotypic detection of penicillin G resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine intramammary infection. Vet Microbiol. 2005;106:97–102.
Takayama Y, Tanaka T, Oikawa K, Fukano N, Goto M, Takahashi T. Prevalence of blaZ gene and performance of phenotypic tests to detect penicillinase in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Japan. Ann Lab Med. 2018;38:155–9.
El-Ghodban A, Ghenghesh K, Marialigeti K, Esahli H, Tawil A. PCR detection of toxic shock syndrome toxin of Staphylococcus aureus from Tripoli. Libya. J Med Microbiol. 2006;55:179–82.
Pu S, Wang F, Ge B. Characterization of toxin genes and antimicrobial susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Louisiana retail meats. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2011;8:299–306.
Saidi R, Cantekİn Z, Khelef D, Ergün Y, Solmaz H, Kaidi R. Antibiotic susceptibility and molecular identification of antibiotic resistance genes of staphylococci isolated from bovine mastitis in Algeria. Kafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg. 2015;21:513–20.
Chaalal W, Aggad H, Zidane K, Saidi N, Kihal M. Antimicrobial susceptibility profiling of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from milk. Br Microbiol Res J. 2016;13:1–7.
Chao G, Zhou X, Jiao X, Qian X, Xu L. Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of foodborne pathogens isolated from food products in China. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2007;4:277–84.
Ardic N, Ozyurt M, Sareyyupoglu B, Haznedaroglu T. Investigation of erythromycin and tetracycline resistance genes in methicillin-resistant staphylococci. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2005;26:213–8.
Schwarz S, Roberts M, Werckenthin C, Pang Y, Lange C. Tetracycline resistance in Staphylococcus spp. from domestic animals. Vet Microbiol. 1998;63:217–27.
Al-Zoubi M, Al-Tayyar I, Hussein E, Jabali A, Khudairat S. Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical specimens in Northern area of Jordan. Iran J Microbiol. 2015;7:265–72.
Eady E, Ross J, Tipper J, Walters C, Cove J, Noble W. Distribution of genes encoding erythromycin ribosomal methylases and an erythromycin efflux pump in epidemiologically distinct groups of staphylococci. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1993;31:211–7.
Aktas Z, Aridogan A, Kayacan C, Aydin D. Resistance to macrolide, lincosamide and streptogramin antibiotics in staphylococci isolated in Istanbul, Turkey. J Microbiol. 2007;45:286–90.
Cetin E, Gunes H, Kaya S, Aridogan B, Demirci M. Distribution of genes encoding resistance to macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramins among clinical staphylococcal isolates in a Turkish university hospital. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2010;43:524–9.
Authors’ contributions
RA, ZC, IN and TMH participated in the conception and design of the study. RA and ZC performed the farm and laboratory work. RA, HE, ZC, IN, TMH, HN and HH analyzed the data, wrote the manuscript and contributed to manuscript discussion. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Byrgit Hofmann at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses Germany for her excellent technical assistance.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Availability of data and materials
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Study protocol was approved by Medical Ethics Research Committee of the Yahia Farès University, Urban Pole, Médéa, Algeria and from the managers of the hospital in which the study was conducted. Informed written consent was obtained from each participant in the study. Confidentiality and personal privacy was respected in all levels of the study. Collected data will not be used for any other purpose.
Funding
Not applicable.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
About this article
Cite this article
Achek, R., Hotzel, H., Cantekin, Z. et al. Emerging of antimicrobial resistance in staphylococci isolated from clinical and food samples in Algeria. BMC Res Notes 11, 663 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3762-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3762-2