UNAIDS. Global AIDS update 2016. Geneva: WHO/UNAIDS; 2016.
Google Scholar
WHO. HIV/AIDS facts sheet. Geneva: WHO; 2015.
Google Scholar
Kaplan JE, Hu DJ, Holmes KK, Jaffe HW, Masur H, De Cock KM. Preventing opportunistic infections in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons: implications for the developing world. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996;55(1):1–11.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Holmes B, Losina E, Walensky R, Yazdanpanah Y, Freedberg K. Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in Sub-Saharan Africa. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:652–62.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Mermin J, Were W, Ekwaru J, Moore D, Dawning R, Behumbiize P, Lule JR, Coutinho A, Tappero J, Bunnell R. Mortality in HIV-infected Ugandan adults receiving antiretroviral treatment and survival of their HIV-uninfected children: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2008;371:752–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Staine JG. AIDS up date 2007: an overview of acquired immune deficiency syndrome. New York: McGraw-Hill co., Inc; 2008.
Google Scholar
Chaisson R, Moore R. Prevention of opportunistic infections in the era of improved antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1997;16:S14–22.
Article
Google Scholar
Colebunders R, Latif AS. Natural history and clinical presentation of HIV-1 infection in adults. AIDS. 1991;5:S103–12.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Selik MR, Starcher ET, Curran JW. Opportunistic diseases reported in AIDS patients: frequencies, associations and trends. AIDS. 1987;1:175–82.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Paton NI, Sangeetha S, Earnest A, Bellamy R. The impact of malnutrition on survival and the CD4 count response in HIV-infected patients starting antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2006;7:323–30.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
UNAIDS. UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic 2013. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2013.
Google Scholar
Brooks J, Kaplan J, Holmes K, Benson C, Pau A, Masur H. HIV-associated opportunistic infections—going, going, but not gone: the continued need for prevention and treatment guidelines. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(5):609–11.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bonnet F, Lewden C, May T, Heripret C, Jougla E, Bevilacqua S, Costagliola D, Salmon D, Chene G, Morlat P. Opportunistic infections as cause of death in HIV infected patients in the HAART era in France. Scand J Infect Dis. 2005;37:482–7.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Corey DM, Kim HW, Salazar R, Illescas R, Villena J, Gutierrez L, Sanchez J, Tabet SR. Brief report: effectiveness of combination antiretroviral therapy on survival and opportunistic infections in a developing world setting: an observational cohort study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;44:451–5.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Sun HY, Chen MY, Hsieh SM, Sheng WH, Chang SY, Hsiao CF, Hung CC, Chang SC. Changes in the clinical spectrum of opportunistic illnesses in persons with HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2006;59:311–6.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Manosuthi W, Chaovavanich A, Tansphaswadikul S, Prasithsirikul W, Inthong Y, Chottanapund S, Sittibusaya C, Moolasart V, Termvises P, Sungkanuparph S. Incidence and risk factors of major opportunistic infections after initiation of antiretroviral therapy among advanced HIV infected patients in a resource-limited setting. J Infect. 2007;55:464–9.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Moges N, Kassa M. Prevalence of opportunistic infections and associated factors among HIV positive patients taking anti-retroviral therapy in DebreMarkos Referral Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia. J AIDS Clin Res. 2014;5:301.
Article
Google Scholar
Uganda Ministry of Health. National AIDS indicator survey 2011. Kampala: Uganda Ministry Of Health; 2011.
Google Scholar
WHO. Scaling up antiretroviral therapy in resource limited settings (treat 3 million by 2005): treatment guidelines for a public health approach 2003 revision. Geneva: WHO; 2004.
Google Scholar
WHO. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents; recommendations for a public health approach. Geneva: WHO; 2006.
Google Scholar
WHO. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents: recommendations for a public health approach 2010 revision. Geneva: WHO; 2010.
Google Scholar
Uganda Ministry of Health. Antiretroviral treatment policy. Kampala: Uganda Ministry of Health; 2009.
Google Scholar
TASO Services and Programmes. http://www.tasouganda.org/. Accessed 21 Mar 2015.
WHO/UNAIDS. WHO case definition of HIV for surveillance and revised clinical staging and immunological classification of HIV-related disease in adults and children. Geneva: WHO; 2006.
Google Scholar
Paradžik M, Bučević-Popović V, Šitum M, Jaing C, Degoricija M, McLoughlin K, Ismail S, Punda-Polić V, Terzić J. Association of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) with bladder cancer in Croatian patients. Tumour Biol. 2014;35(1):567–72.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Theuring S, Mugeny K, Rubaihayo J, Busingye P, Harms G. Antiretroviral therapy programme retention and outcomes after 12 months in a retrospective patient cohort in Fort Portal, Uganda: the ongoing challenge of male ART performance. AIDS Clin Res. 2015;6:423.
Google Scholar
Mageda K, Leyna G, Mmbaga E. High initial HIV/AIDS-related mortality and-its predictors among patients on antiretroviral therapy in the Kagera region of Tanzania: a five-year retrospective cohort study. AIDS Research and Treatment. 2012;2012:1–7.
Article
Google Scholar
Iroezindu M, Ofondu E, Hausler H, Van Wyk B. Factors for opportunistic infections in HIV patients receiving antiretroviral therapy in a resource-limited setting in Nigeria. J AIDS Clin Res. 2013;S3:002.
Google Scholar
Devi S, Ningshen R, Arvind G. Burden of opportunistic infections in hiv/aids patients in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era: a regional institute of medical sciences, Imphal perspective. In: Munjal Y, editor. API text book of Medicine. Kolkata: The Association of Physicians of India; 2013.
Misra S, Sengupta D, Satpathy S. AIDS in India: recent trends in opportunistic infections. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1998;29(2):373–6.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Damtie D, Yismaw G, Woldeyohannes D, Anagaw B. Common opportunistic infections and their CD4 cell correlates among HIV-infected patients attending at antiretroviral therapy clinic of Gondar University Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia. BMC Res Notes. 2013;6(1):534.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Mitiku H, Weldegebreal F, Teklemariam Z. Magnitude of opportunistic infections and associated factors in HIV-infected adults on antiretroviral therapy in eastern Ethiopia. HIV/AIDS. 2015;7:137–44.
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Jougla E, Pequignot F, Carbon C, Pavillon G, Eb M, Bourdais JP, Bourdais O, Hatton F. AIDS-related conditions: study of a representative sample of 1203 patients deceased in 1992 in France. Int J Epidemiol. 1996;25:190–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Skalsky J, Ndumbe PM. Characteristics of HIV/AIDS patients attending a rural hospital in Cameroon. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop. 1993;73:209–16.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Ndour M, Sow PS, Coll-Seck AM, Badiane S, Ndour CT, Diakhate N, Diop B, Faye M, Soumare M, Diouf G, et al. AIDS caused by HIV1 and HIV2 infection: are there clinical differences? Results of AIDS surveillance 1986–97 at Fann Hospital in Dakar, Senegal. Trop Med Int Health. 2000;5(10):687–91.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Chakraboty N, Mukherjee A, Santra S, Sarkar RN, Banerjee D, Guha SK, Chakraboty S, Bhattacharyya SK. Current trends of opportunistic infections among HIV sero-positive patients from Eastern India. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2008;61:49–53.
Google Scholar
Saldanha D, Gupta N, Shenoy S, Saralaya V. Prevalence of opportunistic infections in AIDS patients in Mangalore, Karnataka. Trop Doct. 2008;38:172–3.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Sok P, Harwell JI, McGarvey ST, Lurie M, Lynen L, Flanigan T, Mayer KH. Demographic and clinical characteristics of HIV infected in-patients and out-patients at a Cambodian hospital. AIDS Patients Care STDs. 2006;20(5):369–78.
Article
Google Scholar
Malamba SS, Morgan D, Clayton T, Mayanja B, Okongo M, Whitworth J. The prognostic value of the WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease in rural Uganda. AIDS. 1999;13:2555–62.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Spacek LA, Shihab H, Kamya M, Mwesigire D, Ronald A, Mayanja H, Moore D, Bates M, Quinn TC. Response to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients attending a public, urban clinic in Kampala, Uganda. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:252–9.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Morgan D, Mahe C, Mayanja B, Whitworth JA. Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2002;324:193–6.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
MacArthur R, DuPont H. Etiology and pharmacologic management of noninfectious diarrhea in HIV-infected individuals in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(6):860–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Guest J, Ruffin C, Tschampa J, DeSilva K, Rimland D. Differences in rates of diarrhea in patients with human immunodeficiency virus receiving lopinavir–ritonavir or nelfinavir. Pharmacotherapy. 2004;24(6):727–35.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Johnson M, Grinsztejn B, Rodriguez C, Coco J, DeJesus E, Lazzarin A, Lichtenstein K, Wirtz V, Rightmire A, Odeshoo L, et al. 96-week comparison of once-daily atazanavir/ritonavir and twice-daily lopinavir/ritonavir in patients with multiple virologic failures. AIDS. 2006;20(5):711–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Heiser C, Ernst J, Barrett J, French N, Schutz M, Dube M. Probiotics, soluble fiber and l-glutamine (GLN) reduce nelfinavir (NFV) or lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r)-related diarrhea. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care. 2004;3:121–9.
Article
Google Scholar
Molina J, Andrade-Villanueva J, Echevarria J, Chetchotisakd P, Corral J, David N, Moyle G, Mancini M, Percival L, Yang R, et al. Once-daily atazanavir/ritonavir versus twice-daily lopinavir/ritonavir, each in combination with tenofovir and emtricitabine, for management of antiretroviral-naive HIV-1-infected patients: 48 week efficacy and safety results of the CASTLE study. Lancet. 2008;372(9639):646–55.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Binka A, Mahe C, Watera C, Lugada E, Gilks CF, Whitworth JAG, French N. Diarrhoea, CD4 counts and enteric infections in a community-based cohort of HIV-infected adults in Uganda. J Infect. 2002;45(2):99–105.
Article
Google Scholar
WHO. Global tuberculosis control report 2013. Geneva: WHO; 2013.
Google Scholar
Selwyn A, Hartel D, Lewis VA, Schoenbaum E, Vermund S, Klein R, Walker A, Friedland G. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1989;320(9):545–50.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Holmes C, Hausler H, Nunn P. A review of sex differences in the epidemiology of tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1998;2(2):96–104.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Borgdorff M, Nagelkerke N, Dye C, Nunn P. Gender and tuberculosis: a comparison of prevalence surveys with notification data to explore sex differences in case detection. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2000;4(2):123–32.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Moore D, Liechty C, Ekwaru P, Were W, Mwima G, Solberg P, Rutherford G, Mermin J. Prevalence, incidence and mortality associated with tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in rural Uganda. AIDS. 2007;21(6):713–9.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
WHO. Global tuberculosis report 2015. 20th ed. Geneva: WHO; 2015.
Google Scholar
French N, Nakiyingi J, Carpenter L, Lugada E, Moi K, Watera C, Moore M, Antvelink L, Mulder D, Janoff E, et al. 23-Valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults: double-blind, randomised and placebo controlled trial. Lancet. 2000;355(9221):2106–11.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Gilks CF, Ojoo SA, Ojoo JC, Brindle RJ, Paul J, Batchelor BI, Kimari JN, Newnham R, Bwayo J, Plummer FA, et al. Invasive pneumococcal disease in a cohort of predominantly HIV-1 infected female sex-workers in Nairobi, Kenya. Lancet. 1996;347(9003):718–23.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Miiro G, Kayhty H, Watera C, Tolmie H, Whitworth J, Gilks C, French N. Conjugate pneumococcal vaccine in HIV-infected Ugandans and the effect of past receipt of polysaccharide vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2005;192(10):1801–5.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Benito N, Moreno A, Miro JM, Torres A. Pulmonary infections in HIV-infected patients: an update in the 21st century. Eur Respir J. 2012;39:730–45.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
WHO. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: facts sheet. Geneva: WHO media centre; 2015.
Google Scholar
WHO. WHO guidelines for the treatment of malaria. 3rd ed. Geneva: WHO; 2015. p. 55.
Google Scholar
Gallagher M, Malhotra I, Mungai P, Wamachi A, Kioko J, Ouma J, Muchiri E, King C. The effects of maternal helminth and malaria infections on mother-to-child HIV transmission. AIDS. 2005;19(16):1849–55.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Ivan E, Crowther N, Rucogoza A, Osuwat L, Munyazesa E, Mutimura E, Njunwa K, Zambezi K, Grobusch M. Malaria and helminthic co-infection among HIV-positive pregnant women: prevalence and effects of antiretroviral therapy. Acta Trop. 2012;124(3):179–84.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
WHO. WHO case definitions of HIV for surveillance and revised clinical staging and immunological classification of HIV-related diseases in adults and children. Geneva: WHO; 2006.
Google Scholar
Whitworth J, Morgan D, Quigley M, Smith A, Mayanja B, Eotu H, Omoding N, Okongo M, Malamba S, Amato Ojwiya A. Effect of HIV-1 and increasing immunosuppression on malaria parasitaemia and clinical episodes in adults in rural Uganda: a cohort study. Lancet. 2000;356(9235):1051–6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Verhoeff F, Brabin J, Hart C, Chimsuku L, Kazembe P, Broadhead R. Increased prevalence of malaria in HIV-infected pregnant women and its implications for malaria control. Trop Med Int Health. 1999;4(1):5–12.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Herrero M, Rivas P, Rallón N, Ramírez-Olivencia G, Puente S. HIV & Malaria. AIDS Rev. 2007;9:88–98.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Kamya R, Rosenthal P, Gasasira A, Dorsey G, Yeka A, Havlir D. Effect of HIV-1 infection on antimalarial treatment outcomes in Uganda: a population-based study. J Infect Dis. 2006;193:9–15.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Francesconi P, Fabiani M, Dente M, Lukwiya M, Okwey R, Ouma J, Ochakachon R, Cian F, Declich S. HIV, malaria parasites, and acute febrile episodes in Ugandan adults: a case–control study. AIDS. 2001;15(18):2445–50.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
French N, Nakiyingi J, Lugada E, Watera C, Whitworth J, Gilks C. Increasing rates of malarial fever with deteriorating immune status in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults. AIDS. 2001;15:899–906.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
WHO. World malaria report 2014. Geneva: WHO; 2014.
Google Scholar
Chandramohan D, Greenwood B. Is there an interaction between human immunodeficiency virus and Plasmodium falciparum? Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27:296–301.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Goselle O, Onwuliri C, Onwuliri V. Malaria infection in HIV/AIDS patients and its correlation with packed cell volume (PCV). J Vector Borne Dis. 2009;46:205–11.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Smith T, Hurt N, Teuscher T, Tanner M. Is fever a good clinical sign of malaria in surveys of endemic communities? Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995;52:306–10.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Cohen C, Karstaedt A, Frean J, Thomas J, Govender N, Prentice E, Dini L, Galpin J, Crewe-Brown H. Increased prevalence of severe malaria in HIV-infected adults in South Africa. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(11):1631–7.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Idindili B, Jullu B, Hattendorfi J, Mugusi F, Antelman G, Tanner M. HIV and parasitic co-infections among patients seeking care at health facilities in Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res. 2011;13(4):75–85.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Alexander P, De P. HIV-1 and intestinal helminth review update: updating a Cochrane Review and building the case for treatment and has the time come to test and treat? Parasite Immunol. 2009;31:283–6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Woodburn P, Muhangi L, Hillier S, Ndibazza J, Namujju P, Kizza M, Ameke C, Omoding N, Booth M, Elliott A, et al. Risk factors for helminth, malaria, and HIV infection in pregnancy in Entebbe, Uganda. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2009;3:e473.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Borkow G, Bentwich Z. HIV and helminth co-infection: is deworming necessary? Parasite Immunol. 2006;28:605.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Nissapatorn V, Sawangjaroen N. Parasitic infections in HIV infected individuals: diagnostic & therapeutic challenges. Indian J Med Res. 2011;134:878.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Brown M, Mawa P, Kaleebu P, Elliott A. Helminths and HIV infection: epidemiological observations on immunological hypotheses. Parasite Immunol. 2006;28:613–23.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Webb E, Ekii A, Pala P. Epidemiology and immunology of helminth-HIV interactions. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:245–53.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Walson J, Stewart B, Sangare L, Mbogo L, Otieno P, Piper B, Richardson B, Stewart J. Prevalence and correlates of helminth co-infection in Kenyan HIV-1 infected adults. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4(3):e644.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Knopp S, Mgeni A, Khamis I, Steinmann P, Stothard J, et al. Diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminths in the era of preventive chemotherapy: effect of multiple stool sampling and use of different diagnostic techniques. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2008;2:e331.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Assefa S, Erko B, Medhin G, Assefa Z, Shimelis T. Intestinal parasitic infections in relation to HIV/AIDS status, diarrhea and CD4 T-cell count. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:155.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Babatunde S, Salami A, Fabiyi J, Agbede O, Desalu O. Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infestation in HIV seropositive and seronegative patients in Ilorin, Nigeria. Ann Afr Med. 2010;9(3):123–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Abaver D, Nwobegahay J, Goon D, Iweriebor B, Anye D. Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections among HIV/AIDS patients from two health institutions in Abuja, Nigeria. Afr Health Sci. 2011;11(Suppl1):S24.
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Hailemariam G, Kassu A, Abebe G, Abate E, Damte D, Mekonnen E, Ota F. Intestinal parasitic infections in HIV/AIDS and HIV seronegative individuals in a teaching hospital, Ethiopia. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2004;57:41.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Taye B, Desta K, Ejigu S, Dori G. The magnitude and risk factors of intestinal parasitic infection in relation to human immunodeficiency virus infection and immune status, at ALERT Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Parasitol Int. 2014;2014(63):550–6.
Article
Google Scholar
Mwambete K, Justin-Temu M, Peter S. Prevalence and management of intestinal helminthiasis among HIV-infected patients at Muhimbili National Hospital. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care. 2010;9:150.
Article
Google Scholar
Hosseinipour M, Napravnik S, Joaki G, Gama S, Mbeye N, Banda B, Martinson F, Hoffman I, Cohen M. HIV and parasitic infection and the effect of treatment among adult outpatients in Malawi. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:1278.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Lindo JF, Dubon JM, Age RA, De Gourville EM, Solo-Gabriele H, Klaskala WI, Baum MK, Palmer CJ. Intestinal parasitic infections in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and HIV-negative individuals in San Pedro Sula, Honduras. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;58:431–5.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Feitosa G, Bandeira AC, Sampaio DP, Badaro R, Brites C. High prevalence of giardiasis and strongyloidiasis among HIV-infected patients in Bahia, Brazil. Braz J Infect Dis. 2001;5:339–44.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar